What computers can and can’t do

A computer is an electronic machine that stores and manipulates information (data).  It does this by following specific instructions.  These instructions are called programs or software.  It can process and store large amounts of data very quickly.  A computer seems to be able to do lots more than this.  You may see pictures, text, or video and hear sound, but all the computer sees is numbers. 
If you wanted to give the computer specific instructions to follow, you’d have to write a program for it to follow.  These programs are written in one of many computer languages such as C++, Visual Basic or HTML.  Someone who writes programs is called a programmer.

Computers require both hardware and software in order to work. 
Hardware. Hardware is the physical parts of the computer like the monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers, and of course the computer itself called the system unit.  Hardware is also the parts inside the system unit that you can’t see unless you open it up.  Parts like the motherboard, RAM, and modem.  Many hardware devices can be attached to a system unit to expand its capabilities, such as a speaker, scanner or printer.

Software. Software is the instructions given to the computer that tells it what to do.  A computer cannot do anything without instructions.  A computer must first read instructions before it can start to work.  These instructions are called operating system software.  When a computer is turned on, the first thing it does is find and read its system software.  This software tells the computer how to work; how to be a computer.  Once a computer has done this and is “booted up” or ready to go, it can read other instructions called application software.  This type of software tells the computer how to do a specific task with a user, like writing a report, playing a game, or creating a graph. 

A computer can do anything. However, you need to program it to do anything.

Computers can save a large amount of data, but there is must be a sufficient hard disk.
Computers can change the function of typewriter in writing a letter or a novel if there is Microsoft Word program.
Computers can help people in a presentation. Microsoft Powerpoint could make the presentation in an interesting visual form.
Computers can also entertain people with some interesting games for instance. There is also a program to play songs.

Unfortunately, computers can’ think as a person does
Computers will never be able to think. That is, really think. Not now or ever.
What the computer is doing is merely a superficial imitation of human intelligence. It has been designed to obey certain simple commands, and then it has been provided with programs composed of those commands. Because of this, the computer has to obey those commands, but without any idea of what's happening.

Top 100 Language Blogs 2009 – Nominated Blogs: Language Learning

This is a list of all the blogs that have been nominated for the category Language Learning.


Nominated blogs for category Language Learning
# A Swedish American in Sweden - return to Sweden (Vote)
# Abroad Languages Blog - Learning languages abroad (Vote)
# All Japanese All the Time - How you can learn Japanese (and many more languages) without taking classes, by having fun and doing things you enjoy—watching movies, playing video games, reading comic books—you know: fun stuff! (Vote)
# Angielski dla Zaawansowanych (English for Advanced Learners* - Blog about learning and teaching English, translations and Anglo-Saxon culture.
# Arabic Blog - Our Arabic blog addresses learners of Arabic as a foreign language. It introduces some aspects of the Arabic language: grammar, vocabulary and dialects, as well as certain aspects of Arabic culture and history. Our blogger, Aziza Zaher, teaches Arabic at a university level and is also a freelance translator. (Vote)
# Babelhut - A small space devoted to language and language learning. (Vote)
# Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective (Vote)
# Mission to Learn - Know Better. Live Better. (Vote)
# Ben's Blog - A Midwesterner in the Middle Kingdom (Vote)
# BLOGBOGSTAVER - Ordkløverens blog om det danske sprog. A blog on the danish language. (Vote)
# bradshaw of the future - a blog about linguistics, especially Indo-European historical linguistics (Vote)
# Bringing up Baby Bilingual - All about raising kids with more than one language, including profiles of bilingual families, reviews of books and other materials, suggestions for language-learning activities, and stories about teaching French to young children. (Vote)
# bulbulovo - This blog is updated whenever its author, a Semitic philologist in making dabbling into all things linguistic, comes up with a new idea or across an interesting fact. (Vote)
# Cactus Worldwide Blog - Learn a language your way! (Vote)
# Cantophilia - Don't just learn Cantonese. Learn to love the language (Vote)
# China Segment - Feds’ blog about life in China, living in Shanghai
# Chinese Blog - Our Chinese blogger, Andrew Carr, official US Rowing interpreter during last year's Beijing Olympic Games, keeps readers updated with useful words and phrases for everyday situations against the backdrop of his life in Beijing. (Vote)
# Chinese Lessons with Serge Melnyk - Learn Mandarin Chinese with theme-based, progressive and easy to follow lessons (Vote)
# Chinese Quest - Learning Chinese Blog
# Colloquial spanish - Spanish idioms, sayings, phrases, slang and proverbs
# Confessions of a Language Addict - Thoughts on language, language learning and the process of becoming a polyglot - from the editor of multilingua.info. (Vote)
# Conosci l´Italia - to learn about ItALY
# Cuaderno Intercultural - blog which collects and organizes information, resources, advices, new, and everything that can be useful to intercultural teaching and foreign students (Vote)
# David on Formosa - Blog focusing the commentary to all things Taiwanese — Taipei, Taiwan (Vote)
# Deppenleerzeichen - Deppenleerzeichen | Alleinstellungsmerkmal (Vote)
# Der Englisch Blog - Der Englisch-Blog liefert jeden Tag neue Erklärungen und Übungen rund um die englische Sprache. (Vote)
# Deutsch für Dich - Tipps, Links und mehr zum Deutschlernen (Vote)
# Deutsch ist Klasse - Learning German for Romanians (Vote)
# Deutsch lernen - Learning German Blog
# Deutsch lernen und studieren in Deutschland - Learning German in Germany (Vote)
# Dick & Garlick - Notes on Indian English, Hinglish, slang & pop culture (Vote)
# die.hor - Nachts stehe ich nicht auf, um heimlich zu trinken. (Vote)
# Doubting to shou - Chinese, Linguistics, Cultural observations (Vote)
# Dutch Blog - Our Dutch Blog is a series of frequently published articles about Dutch language and culture. Our original blogger, Alie Koffeman, lives in the Netherlands and has studied short story and novel-writing. Our new blogger is Yohann Kuhn experienced writer and teacher who is currently studying for my M.A. in Dutch linguistics. (Vote)
# Dutch’s English Language Oddity Clearing House - This blog investigates the phrases, idioms, slogans and sayings that may have influenced your life
# En francais s'il vous plait - A blog from a French teacher on which his corean students can post articles in French (Vote)
# English Experts - Blog on studying english as a second language online for Portuguese speakers. (Vote)
# Esperanto Blog - Our Esperanto Blog is a series of frequently published articles about Esperanto language. Our blogger, Alex Joy, speaks and studies Esperanto and is very passionate about sharing his knowledge with our readers. (Vote)
# Fluent in 3 months - Language learning tips from Benny the Irish polyglot, who speaks 7 languages, and his story as he travels the world to learn new ones! (Vote)
# Fool’s Flashcard Review - Flashcard Software Reviews for Language Learners (Vote)
# Foreign Language Studies - Articles of this language learner in several languages including French
# ForeignLanguageBlog.com - How to learn foreign languages: advice from the Foreign Language Doctor (Vote)
# Freestyle Language - learning languages both on the web and off, as well as cool language-related things (Vote)
# French Blog - Our French Blog is a series of frequently published articles about French language and culture. Our blogger Chanda Danley is a freelance translator and a certified EFL/ESOL teacher. (Vote)
# German Blog - Our German Blog is a series of frequently published articles about German language and culture. Our original blogger, Nathalie La Vache, is a multilingual teacher who lived in Germany for several years. Our new blogger is Yohann Kuhn, experienced writer and teacher, as well as German native. (Vote)
# Hanashidake - Italian girl studying Japanese (Vote)
# Hanzi Smatter - This blog is dedicated to the misuse of Chinese characters in Western culture. (Vote)
# Hindi Blog - Our Hindi Blog is a series of frequently published articles about Hindi language and culture. Our blogger, Kunthra Kim, translates for Samachar.com, an online Indian news outlet for Indian-American readers, and also writes for ISpeakHindi.com. (Vote)
# I kinda like languages blog - I Kinda Like Languages
# IES la orden bilingue francais-espagnol - Bilingual blog created by spanish pupils studying French
# Il due blog - Italian for foreigners (Vote)
# ILGUR: Italian Language, Grammar and Usage Resource - Welcome to ILGUR: A "blog" dedicated to studying, learning and improving Italian. Look for regular posts on grammar tips, expanding your vocabulary and usage. (Vote)
# Irish Blog - Our Irish Blog is a series of frequently published articles about Irish language and culture. Our blogger, Roslyn Bhloinn is an experienced writer, teacher and a published author. (Vote)
# Italian Blog - Our Italian Blog is a series of frequently published articles about Italian language and culture. Our blogger Maria Serena Cricorian, lives in Italy and is a published author and teacher. (Vote)
# Italiano in rete - test and training to learn Italian
# Italiano per tutti - Exercises and trainings to learn Italian (Vote)
# Italy From The Inside - A Scoop of Real Italian Life for Travelers & Friends (Vote)
# Jabal al-Lughat - Climbing the Mountain of Languages (Vote)
# Japanese Blog - Our Japanese Blog is a series of frequently published articles about Japanese language and culture. Our blogger, Ginny Kim, has worked as an online language tutor for 5 years, and is TESOL certified. (Vote)
# JAPANITE Learn Real Japanese - Take your Japanese to a higher level.
# Joanne Jacobs - Joanne Jacobs presents her views on current educational topics and themes. (Vote)
# Join Martin - Journalist, Martin Drury, has just 1 year to learn as many languages as possible. This blog covers what he does and how he does it. (Vote)
# Keith's Voice on Extreme Language Learning - Learning Japanese Blog (Vote)
# Kopula - A language nerd's confessions (Vote)
# Korean Blog - Our Korean Blog is a series of frequently published articles about Korean language and culture. Our blogger, Ginny Kim, has taught basic, intermediate, and advanced Korean, and currently works as an online language tutor. (Vote)
# Langauge Log - General language blog covering a range of topics and aspects of language studies. (Vote)
# Language Geek - Tips and tricks on learning languages and language education. Reviews and views on helpful websites as well as articles on tudy techniques.
# Language is the People's - English language blog (Vote)
# Languagehat - General language blog covering academic language realted issues. Among other things discussing recent developments in the field of language studies. (Vote)
# Laowai Chinese - Tips and Strategies for Learning to Speak Chinese (Vote)
# larryferlazzo - …For Teaching ELL, ESL, & EFL (Vote)
# Learn a language - generally about learning languages (Vote)
# learn Italian language - Learning Italian Blog (Vote)
# Learn Thai from a White Guy - Learn Thai From a White Guy
# Learn Thai Language Blog - Hints and Tips to Improve your Thai Language Learning! (Vote)
# Learn that Language Now - Articles concerning language learning (Vote)
# Learning Diary - following a student in learning
# Learning the Language - Blog on difficult policy questions, explore learning innovations, and share stories about different cultural groups. (Vote)
# LearnItalianPod - Learn italian with free podcasts (Vote)
# Lingua Italiana - For Spanish speaking students to learn about Italian language and culture
# Lost in Japanese - learning the Japanese language
# Mandarin Student - English person attempting to learn Mandarin from the Internet. Resources and advice to help other budding Mandarin students in a similar position. (Vote)
# matjjin-nehen - language and linguist blog (Vote)
# my korean learning journey - Documenting my korean learning journey, sharing the passion to learn.
# My Language Learning Blog - A Hungarian student´s diary about her experience of learning languages such as English, Chinese, Japanese, Russian, Spanish, French, Slovak, Czech, Portuguese, German and more to follow in the future! Writing in English and posting in other studied languages, too, with audio clips. Also a bookworm and lover of nice music, besides language- and exam-related musings you can find here book reviews and translated lyrics as well.
# My Languages - Resources, Research, News and Views about Language-teaching in the UK (Vote)
# My Linguistics - Blogging my experiences in learning Korean.
# Name - Description
# Nihongo Notes - Lessons and Advice to Help You Learn Japanese ...and a little bit about life in Japan (Vote)
# Norwegian Blog - Our Norwegian Blog is a series of frequently published articles about Norwegian language and culture. The Norwegian blog is written by Kari Bergeson, a St. Olaf college alum who has taught Norwegian to both children and adults. Kari wants to share the history of Norway, and its culture - both traditional and modern - with our blog readers. (Vote)
# On Learning Brazilian Portuguese - Tips & Web Resources from an American student.
# On Words and Upwards! - Your Hapax legomenon is showing…
# Owshawng - Chinese language and food
# Polish Blog - Our Polish Blog is a series of frequently published articles about Polish language and culture. Our multilingual blogger Anna Etmanska, a Polish native, makes this blog very educational but also very exciting. (Vote)
# Polyglot Vegetarian - Grazing through the world of words (Vote)
# Portuguese Blog - Portuguese Learning Blog (Vote)
# Pukka German - Learn German Podcasts (Vote)
# Quixotic Quisling - It's about language, music, art, business and other stuff I care about. Minus what I had for lunch. (Vote)
# Russian Blog - Our Russian Blog is a series of frequently published articles about the Russian language and Russian Culture. Our blogger is Josefina Lundblad, a talented and prolific Swedish-born writer who has been living in Russia for several years. (Vote)
# SCC English - The English Department of St Columba's College, Whitechurch, Dublin 16, Ireland. News, poems, drama, reviews by pupils of school events, essays, podcasts, book recommendations ... and more (Vote)
# Schrift&Rede - Herausgegeben von der Forschungsgruppe Deutsche Sprache (Vote)
# Spanish blog - Our Spanish blog brings the latest information about Spanish spoken in Spain and Latin America. It covers grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and culture. Our blogger Adir Ferreira has extensive teaching practice and that contributes immensely to the blog's success. (Vote)
# Spanish Only - The blog about learning Spanish, to fluency, on your own and without ever visiting a classroom. (Vote)
# Sprachbloggeur - Der Sprachbloggeur
# suite101 - The genuine article. Literally.
# Swedish Blog - Our Swedish Blog is a series of frequently published articles about Swedish language and culture. Our multilingual blogger Anna Etmanska, who lived in Sweden for several years, makes this blog very educational but also very exciting. (Vote)
# Swedish, basically - Learning Swedish Blog (Vote)
# Tenser, said the Tensor - Tenser, said the Tensor is the blog of a graduate student in linguistics. It's about language, science fiction, computers and technology, comics, anime, and other geekery. (Vote)
# Thai 101 - Thoughts on Thai language, media, and culture. (Vote)
# the boundaries of language - English Language Blog (Vote)
# The Cunning Linguist - Effective language study (Vote)
# The English Blog - Blog covering both old and new Internet resources for learners and teachers of English. Not only reviews and presentations, but also advice on how to get the most out of it. (Vote)
# The Language Chronicle - The Language Chronicle has one simple mission: To serve as the ultimate source for information on foreign languages and how to learn them. (Vote)
# The Linguist on Language - Language blog for people who love languages or would, but were discouraged. (Vote)
# The Smiling Eggplant - All about Italy (Vote)
# The Word Nerds - Podcast about language (Vote)
# Tjyvlyssnat - This blog is packed with eavesdropped conversations in Swedish. Unfortunatley it is only in Swedish. (Vote)
# tłumaczenia i błędy - językowo - Blog about translations and language correctness. (Blog o tłumaczeniach i poprawności językowej.)
# Tofugu - A wonky Japanese language and culture blog (Vote)
# Tower of Confusion - Blog with general thoughts on interesting language topics with other language learners. Another theme of this blog is multiculturalism (Vote)
# Una japonesa en Japón - Construyendo un puente hacia el futuro, entre los países de Habla Hispana y Japón (Vote)
# Voices en Español - A bilingual blog (Vote)
# Foreign Language Fun - A true language lover's blog (Vote)
# Wishydig - English language blog (Vote)
# Women Learning Thai - Expat making her way through Thai language and culture (Vote)
# Бамбук до небес - About Chinese language, and ist insights.
# Врачом в Испанию - Spanish language and possibilities of medical career in Spain
# Всё обо всём - The source is dedicated to the learning process of English language
# Моссаж мозга - About the better techniques connected to the learing process
# Необходимость изучения английского языка - About the actual problems and situations connected to the study process of the english language.
# ฝรั่งงง - This is a public space for me to organize, track, and encourage my independent study of Thai as a foreign language. Beyond that, it’s an outlet for my general interest in languages and linguistics.
# イギリスで暮らそうっと！ - Japanse who works in UK tells her everyday life. (Vote)
# それでも、私は日本を愛している！！ - Japanese now living in Thailand with her Thai hasband. This is about her life and travelling.
# 英文ライティング講座 - This is a blog provided by アイモ君 and i-osmosis for English learners. It brings you news and useful information for leaning English (Vote)

15 Web Tools to Enhance Language Learning

With the world becoming more culturally diverse everyday, it is becoming increasing important for everyone to learn a new language. Whether you are learning for your career, education, or just want to increase you knowledge of other languages, the Internet provides a wide variety of tools that can enhance your learning experience. Here is a list of 15 free language learning tools to explore today:

Popling – Popling is free online web software that is great for practicing language vocabulary without any real effort. This unique software works by having a window (flash card) pop up at certain intervals on your desktop. You can either click on the window to study the full flash card or ignore it and the window will disappear.

Radio Lingua Network – The Radio Linga Network offers free online podcasts that you can use to enhance listening comprehension and language learning skills for 20 different languages. The podcast episodes range from one-minute quick lessons to longer, five-minute lessons.

Livemocha – Livemocha is a free community language learning tool with online interactive lessons, user created courses, and language partners that are ready to practice with you. The language partners are a great way build your language confidence though conversations with live native speakers. You have the option of either using conversation exercises or submitting text and audio files to native speakers for corrections and edits.

Palabea – With this large international language learning community, you can interact with native speakers, find audio and visual learning aids, improve writing and grammar, and even find native speakers in your hometown. Through these tools, Palabea gives everyone the opportunity to learn or study their foreign speaking skills on an international web platform.

Freelang.net – Freelang.net offers free language dictionaries, translations, blogs, and forums to help you increase your language skills. These tools are an excellent way for you to improve your reading, writing, and speaking skills in the language you’re studying. This site also provides links to other translation software, learning tools, and more.

ForiegnWord.com – This site features four different tools that foreign language learners can use to translate text, find language links, and gain access to 265 online dictionaries. Just one of the tools featured on this site, Translate Now, provides access to 28 translators in over 38 different languages.

Lingro – Lingro is a free site with open content dictionaries that provide free online learning in 11 different languages. With this site, you can increase your language comprehension and understanding through online translations, word lists, games, a collaborative dictionary, and more.

Babbel – The Babbel site is a free online learning portal for Spanish, English, German, French, and Italian. Within this site, you will find multimedia learning methods and tools that are easy and fun to use. Babbel also offers a language exchange community with more than 400,000 registered users.

Transparent Language – Transparent Language provides language software that has helped millions of individuals worldwide with language learning. On this site you can find several free resources and tools, including language software, blogs, games, articles, and learning communities to enhance your language skills.

Open Culture – This free site provides podcasts for learning 37 different languages. The podcasts cover everything from Arabic to Yiddish and are perfect for beginner, intermediate, and advanced learners. You can listen to lessons instantly on your computer or download them in MP3 format for listening on the go.

SharedTalk – SharedTalk is an online language learning community that provides tools to practice and study a multitude of different languages. With this site, you can use language partners, voice chat, text chat, and email to enhance your language skills while helping other people to enhance theirs.

Lang-8 – This site encourages language learners to practice writing skills by writing in the language they are studying. Once your writing assignment is complete you can send it to a native speaker for editing and corrections. This site also works as an online exchange community–you will be asked to read and correct the writings of others who are studying your language.

Digital Dialects – Digital Dialects offers free interactive learning games for 58 different languages. The games provide practice with beginning phrases as well as vocabulary builders to help language learners increase their knowledge. The site is updated regularly with new material.

Translation2 – With four free online translators, Translation2 is a good site for increasing your understanding and comprehension in language learning. Translation tools include a text translator, dictionary, text to speech translator, and an IM translator. The text to speech translator is an excellent way to practice pronunciation and can be embedded in emails or web pages.

Karen Schweitzer is an education writer and Guest Blogger for PickTheBrain. She is the About.com Guide to Business School. She also writes for OnlineCollege.org, an accredited online college resource.

Virtual Reality in Language Learning

These articles mainly deal with text or chat-based VR worlds, and regard any voice input mechanisms as impractical or “high-end”. Most of the articles I found also come from a pedagogical background, and don’t get into emotional reward. Lots of Vygotski references to social aspects of learning. After reviewing this stuff, I think we need to look for SPELL vs. CALL techniques (see acronym key below), since these involve spoken language.
Morton, H. & Jack, M.A. (2005). Scenario-Based Spoken Interaction with Virtual Agents. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18(3), 171-191.

* We should definitely look at the full-text version of this one, as it is very close to our idea. It may not have the theoretical background of emotion reward, but it does involve a VR world and spoken interaction. This SPELL approach is real-time and feedback focus is immediate and corrective.

Schwienhorst, K. (2002). The state of VR: A meta-analysis of virtual reality tools in second language acquisition. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 15(3), 221-239.

* Goes into how learner partnerships w/in a virtual environment, learner autonomy, and automatic logging enhances educational power of VR gaming experience. Exploration of high and low-end VR tools in L2 acquisition. Places a lot of emphasis on learner-learner interaction.

Roed, J. (2003). Language Learner Behaviour in a Virtual Environment. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 16(2-3), 155-172.

* When communicating online, people show fewer inhibitions, display less social anxiety, and reduce their public self-awareness. Based on these findings, it seems that a virtual learning environment may constitute a more relaxed and stress free atmosphere than a classroom.

Peterson, M. (2006). Learner Interaction Management in an Avatar and Chat-based Virtual World. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 19(1), 79-103.

* Report on a study that investigated non-native speaker interaction in a 3D virtual world that incorporates avatars and text chat known as Active Worlds. Post-study questionnaires found that avatars enhanced the subjects’ sense of telepresence and that the learners made use of their communicative features during the interaction. The analysis further suggested that the use of avatars facilitated learner interaction management during real time CMC.
* Full-Text Summary: This study looked at NNS interaction in a 3D virtual world w/avatar functions, called Active Worlds. The main thing we are interested in are the citations about how avatars facilitated learner interaction management, which supports L2 development by increasing target language output and enhancing motivation. Avatars offer a sense of “telepresence”, or a sense of “being” within a virtual world. Another avatar advantage is the ability to communicate through non-verbal cues, such as smiling or waving. Studies have shown that the chat-base design can become overwhelming for NNS’s to follow, which doesn’t allow them time to use their avatars or their communication features.

Peterson, M. (2001). MOOs and Second Language Acquisition: Towards a Rationale for MOO-based Learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 14(5), 443-459.

* Nice overview of reasoning behind MOO-based learning software, which could be used as theoretical background against classroom learning. Actually mentions salience of L2 input, as well as feedback; however, this is based on network-based education.
* Full-Text Summary: Concentrated on network based VR worlds, which is out of the scope of what we want to do. Mentioned that CMC-based discourse conducted entirely in TL may improve learners’ written output, and ultimately their L2 proficiency (Paramskas, 1993). Less inhibition (Richards, 2001). Fewer restraint on time/distance than traditional L2 learning environments (Harasim, 1986). Studies have noted the motivational effects of nenwork-based CMC learning (Chun, 1994, Negretti, 1999). Logging input is good for self-review.

Hansson, T. (2005). English as a Second Language on a Virtual Platform–Tradition and Innovation in a New Medium. Computer Assisted Language Learning,18(1-2), 63-79.

* Vygotskian design to investigate a virtual platform on text composition task. By investigating the design of a combined virtual and physical learning environment we describe how the video-game generation operates (in) a social system of peers as they develop their computer skills and text composing ability.

McAvinia, C. & Hughes, J. (2003). Sharing Systems, Sharing Language: Designing and Working in a Virtual Department. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 16(5), 445-467.

* This study created an inter-university virtual learning environment (called a virtual department), in order to accomodate talented language learners or students of obscure languages, which the university may not have offered. More of a community-based learning environment, but a good example of how “virtual” is overgeneralized in the literature.

Welcome to the world of VR-related acronyms:
CALL = computer assisted language learning
MOOs = object-oriented multi-user domains
SPELL = spoken electronic language learning
CMC = computer mediated communication



Cool sites to check out:

Onlive Traveller - online community where avatars can communicate in the user’s voice, with microphones instead of typing.

CALL, Internet, and Language Learning

CALL and Internet methodology can be linked in with ordinary foreign-language classroom work in order to motivate the learners to learn what the teacher wants them to learn

The teacher's role, first of all, is to choose a CALL program or an online Internet activity (from now on collectively referred to as 'computer program' or just 'program') that can fulfil the teaching goals aimed at during the teaching unit and that is - hopefully - interesting from the learners' point of view.
a) pre-computer work
b) computer work
c) post-computer work

Regardless of the type of tasks performed by the learners, it is always profitable from an educational point-of-view to let the learners reflect upon what they feel they have learned during the various phases of the teaching unit. Furthermore, project work dealing with different countries, peoples, and cultures in particular often lead to further questions that need to be answered and which could perhaps be worth a follow-up project in its own right. The teacher could therefore ask the learners to prepare, as homework, questions to be asked using one or several of the communication options offered by the Internet, such as e-mail, electronic postcards, or a chat site. Providing ample opportunity for authentic, albeit written communication in the foreign language with other learners throughout the world, such homework generally guarantees optimal learner motivation.

An Introduction to CALL

What is CALL ?

CALL is often associated (wrongly) with an old-fashioned approach to the use of ICT in language learning and teaching. Levy (1997:1) provides the following succinct definition of CALL
"Computer Assisted Language Learning 9call) may be defined as"the search for and study of applicatons of the computer in language teaching and learning".
This is catch-all definition, which is also endorsed by the leading international proffesional associations.

Three Phases of CALL :
1) Behavioristic CALL; entailed repetitive language drills and can be referred to as "drill and practice".
The rationale behind drill and practice was not totally spuious,which explains in part the fact that CALL drills are still used today. Briefly put, that rationale is as follows :
a. Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning.
b. A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presentin the same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental feedback.
c. A computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities.

2) Communicative CALL; According to Underwood, 1984, p.52 communicative call :
a. focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves;
b. teaches ammar implicitly rather than explicitly:
c. allows and encourages students to genearte original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated language;
d. does not judge and evaluate everything the students nor reward them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells;
e. avoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a variety of student responses;
f. uses the target language exclusively and creates an environtment in which using the target language feels natural, both on and off the screen; and will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well.

3). Steps toward Integrative CALL:Multimedia.
Integrative approaches to CALL are based on two important technological developments of the last decade-multimedia computers and the Internet Multimedia technology-exemplified today by the
CD-ROM-allows a variety of media (text,graphics,sound,animation, and video) to be accesed on a single machine.What makes multimedia resources are all linked together and that learners can na
vigate their own path symply by pointing and clicking a mouse.
Hypermedia provides a number of advantages for language learning.First of all, a more authentic learning environment is created, since listening is combined with seeing, just like in the real word.
Secondly, skills are easily integrated, since the variety of media make it natural to combine reading,writing,speaking and listening in a single activity. Third, students have great control over
theirlearning, since they can notonly go at their own pace but even ontheir own individual path, going forward and backwards to different parts of the program, honing in on particular aspects and
skipping other aspects altogether. Finally, a major advantage of hypermedia is that it facilitates a principle focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning
strategies.

*) Steps toward Integrative CALL: The Internet.
Computer mediated communication allows users to share not only brief messages, but also lengthy (formatted or unformatted) documents-thus facilitating collabotative writing-and also graphics, sounds,and video. using the World Wide Web (WWW), students can searchthrough millions of files around the world within minutes to locate and access authentic materials (e.g. newspaper and magazine articles,radio broadcasts, short videos,movie reviews,book excerpts) exactly tailored to their own personal interest. They can also use the Web to pulish their text or multimedia materials to share with partner classes or with the general public.

Web Addresses

The World Wide Web identifies the location of particular computers, resources, and files on the Internet using an address called a URL, or Uniform Resource Locator. This URL indicates the kind of service being accessed, the Internet address of the machine, and generally the location and names of particular files stored on it.

The general format of a URL is:

servertype://servername/foldername/filename.ext

The parts of a URL are explained below.
Server Type

Through Web links or through the Open Location command, you can access many different types of servers. The most common server types are:
http:
HyperText Transport Protocol. This is a file designed to be viewed with a Web browser; it will probably have links to other resources in it. (Example: http://www.cornell.edu)
ftp:
File Transfer Protocol. These files can also be accessed through the File Transfer service of Bear Access; links to these kinds of files usually transfer files to your hard disk, but may result in text that you can read on your screen. (Example: ftp://ftp.cit.cornell.edu/pub)
gopher:
These references usually connect to a text-based information system where the files are arranged in lists; files accessible this way usually do not contain HyperText links to other resources and are just plain text. (Example: gopher://gopher.cornell.edu)
news:
Links to news groups allow you to read news groups as though you were using the Network News service in Bear Access; note that news links do not require the two slashes ("//") used by other URL types. (Example: news:cornell.marketplace)
telnet:
References to telnet-based services will connect your computer to a "host computer" (a central computer with many users at once) on which you have an account or on which a guest account is provided; you will need a helper program to access telnet links. (Example: telnet://cornell.edu)


Required Syntax:
Generally Web addresses require the :// (a colon followed by two slashes) before the server name. One exception is the News address as stated above.

Internet Server Name:
Most Internet servers will have a "domain name" like www.cit.cornell.edu in the example corresponding to its IP (Internet Protocol) address; occasionally you will see numbers instead, such as 128.253.180.2.

The final suffix on the address gives you additional information about the server. For instance, the following suffixes mean:
.edu : educational institutions in the US
.gov : governmental institutions in the US
.org : organizations (often non-profit)
.com : commercial sites
.uk : United Kingdom
.ca : Canada
.de : Germany (Deutschland)
.jp : Japan

You'll encounter many others from all over the world.

Directory or folder:
Part of the path name required for the Web to find a particular file. You can put folders within folders as long as they are separated with a slash.

File name:
This is the name of the specific Web page you are accessing, separated from its folder or directory by a slash.

Note that sometimes you will see a URL without folder or file names. In that case, the browser looks for a file called "default.html" or "index.html" and opens that automatically.

CALL (computer assisted language learning)

A definition of CALL

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is often perceived, somewhat narrowly, as an approach to language teaching and learning in which the computer is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element. Levy (1997:1) defines CALL more succinctly and more broadly as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning". Levy's definition is in line with the view held by the majority of modern CALL practitioners. For a comprehensive overview of CALL see ICT4LT Module 1.4, Introduction to Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL): http://www.ict4lt.org/.

A brief history of CALL

CALL's origins can be traced back to the 1960s. Up until the late 1970s CALL projects were confined mainly to universities, where computer programs were developed on large mainframe computers. The PLATO project, initiated at the University of Illinois in 1960, is an important landmark in the early development of CALL (Marty 1981). In the late 1970s, the arrival of the personal computer (PC) brought computing within the range of a wider audience, resulting in a boom in the development of CALL programs and a flurry of publications. Early CALL favoured an approach that drew heavily on practices associated with programmed instruction. This was reflected in the term Computer Assisted Language Instruction (CALI), which originated in the USA and was in common use until the early 1980s, when CALL became the dominant term. There was initially a lack of imagination and skill on the part of programmers, a situation that was rectified to a considerable extent by the publication of an influential seminal work by Higgins & Johns (1984), which contained numerous examples of alternative approaches to CALL. Throughout the 1980s CALL widened its scope, embracing the communicative approach and a range of new technologies. CALL has now established itself as an important area of research in higher education: see the joint EUROCALL/CALICO/IALLT Research Policy Statement: http://www.eurocall-languages.org /research/research_policy.htm. See also the History of CALL website: http://www.history-of-call.org/.

Traditional CALL

Traditional CALL programs presented a stimulus to which the learner had to provide a response. In early CALL programs the stimulus was in the form of text presented on screen, and the only way in which the learner could respond was by entering an answer at the keyboard. Some programs were very imaginative in the way text was presented, making use of colour to highlight grammatical features (e.g. gender in French and case endings in German) and movement to illustrate points of syntax (e.g. position of adjectives in French and subordinate clause word order in German). Discrete error analysis and feedback were a common feature of traditional CALL, and the more sophisticated programs would attempt to analyse the learner's response, pinpoint errors, and branch to help and remedial activities. A typical example of this approach is the CLEF package for learners of French, which was developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s by a consortium of Canadian universities. A Windows version of CLEF has recently been released: http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/clef.htm Error analysis in CALL is, however, a matter of controversy. Practitioners who come into CALL via the disciplines of computational linguistics, e.g. Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Human Language Technologies (HLT), tend to be more optimistic about the potential of error analysis by computer than those who come into CALL via language teaching: see ICT4LT Module 3.5, Human Language Technologies: http://www.ict4lt.org/. The approach adopted by the authors of CLEF was to anticipate common errors and build in appropriate feedback. An alternative approach is the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques to parse the learner's response - so-called "intelligent CALL" (ICALL) - but there is a gulf between those who favour the use of AI to develop CALL programs (Matthews 1994) and, at the other extreme, those who perceive this approach as a threat to humanity (Last 1989:153).

Explorative CALL

More recent approaches to CALL have favoured a learner-centred, explorative approach rather than a teacher-centred, drill-based approach to CALL. The explorative approach is characterised by the use of concordance programs in the languages classroom - an approach described as Data-Driven Learning (DLL) by Tim Johns (Johns & King 1991). There are a number of concordance programs on the market, e.g. MonoConc, Concordance, Wordsmith and SCP - all of which are described in ICT4LT Module 2.4, Using concordance programs in the modern foreign languages classroom: http://www.ict4lt.org/. See also Tribble & Jones (1990). The explorative approach is widely used today, including the use of Web concordancers and other Web-based CALL activities.

Multimedia CALL

Early personal computers were incapable of presenting authentic recordings of the human voice and easily recognizable images, but this limitation was overcome by combining a personal computer and a 12-inch videodisc player, which made it possible to combine sound, photographic-quality still images and video recordings in imaginative presentations - in essence the earliest manifestation of multimedia CALL. The result was the development of interactive videodiscs for language learners such as Montevidisco (Schneider & Bennion 1984), Expodisc (Davies 1991), and A la rencontre de Philippe (Fuerstenberg 1993), all of which were designed as simulations in which the learner played a key role.

The techniques learned in the 1980s by the developers of interactive videodiscs were adapted for the multimedia personal computers (MPCs), which incorporated CD-ROM drives and were in widespread use by the early 1990s. The MPC is now the standard form of personal computer. CD-ROMs were used in the 1980s initially to store large quantities of text and later to store sound, still images and video. By the mid-1990s a wide range of multimedia CD-ROMs for language learners was available, including imaginative simulations such as the Who is Oscar Lake? series: http://www.languagepub.com/. The quality of video recordings offered by CD-ROM technology, however, was slow to catch up with that offered by the earlier interactive videodiscs. The Digital Video Disc (DVD) offers much higher quality video recordings, e.g. the Eurotalk Advanced Level DVD-ROM series: http://www.eurotalk.co.uk/. A feature of many multimedia CALL programs is the role-play activity, in which the learner can record his/her own voice and play it back as part of a continuous dialogue with a native speaker. Other multimedia programs make use of Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) software to diagnose learners' errors, e.g. Tell Me More Pro by Auralog: http://www.auralog.com/english.html. Most CALL programs under development today fall into the category of multimedia CALL. See ICT4LT Module 2.2, Introduction to multimedia CALL: http://www.ict4lt.org/.

Web-based CALL

In 1992 the World Wide Web was launched, reaching the general public in 1993. The Web offers enormous potential in language learning and teaching, but it has some way to go before it catches up with the interactivity and speed of access offered by CD-ROMs or DVDs, especially when accessing sound and video files. For this reason, Felix (2001:190) advises adopting hybrid approaches to CALL, integrating CD-ROMs and the Web and running audio conferencing and video conferencing in conjunction with Web activities. The Web Enhanced Language Learning (WELL) project, which has been funded under the FDTL programme of the HEFCE, aims to promote wider awareness and more effective use of the Web for teaching modern languages across higher education in the UK. The WELL website provides access to high-quality Web resources in a number of different languages, selected and described by subject experts, plus information and examples on how to use them for teaching and learning: http://www.well.ac.uk/.

See also the following ICT4LT modules: http://www.ict4lt.org/

1.5 Introduction to the Internet

2.3 Exploiting World Wide Web resources online and offline

3.2 Creating a World Wide Web site

CALL authoring programs

CALL authoring programs offer a do-it-yourself approach to CALL. They were originally developed to enable programmers to simplify the entry of data provided by language teachers. Modern CALL authoring programs are designed to be used by language teachers who have no knowledge of computer programming. Typical examples are authoring packages that automatically generate a set of pre-set activities for the learner, e.g. Camsoft's Fun with Texts (Camsoft) and The Authoring Suite (Wida Software). Generic packages such as Macromedia's Director (http://www.macromedia.com/) are more sophisticated and enable the user to create a full-blown course, but they are probably too complex for most language teachers and are best suited to the template approach to authoring, as described in ICT4LT Module 3.2, CALL software design and implementation: http://www.ict4lt.org/ Web authoring packages are also available, e.g. Hot Potatoes software: http://web.uvic.ca/hrd/halfbaked. See ICT4LT Module 2.5, Introduction to CALL authoring programs. See also Bickerton (1999) and Bickerton, Stenton & Temmermann (2001).

Professional associations for CALL

An increasing number of professional associations devoted to CALL are emerging worldwide. The older associations are grouped together under WorldCALL, which is in the process of establishing itself as an umbrella association of associations. WorldCALL held its first conference at the University of Melbourne in 1998, and the second WorldCALL conference will take place in Banff, Canada, 2003: http://www.worldcall.org/. The current professional associations represented in WorldCALL are:

EUROCALL: The leading European professional association for CALL. The ReCALL journal is published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of EUROCALL: http://www.eurocall-languages.org

CERCLES: The European Confederation of Language Centres in Higher Education. http://www.cercles.org/. CERCLES embraces a similar constituency to IALLT in North America.

CALICO: The leading North American professional association for CALL. Publishes the CALICO Journal: http://www.calico.org/

IALLT: International Association for Language Learning Technology, based in North America: http://www.iallt.org/. IALLT publishes the IALLT Journal of Language Learning Technologies and embraces a similar constituency to CERCLES in Europe.

CCALL/ACELAO: Currently in the process of establishing itself as a formal professional association in Canada. No website is available at present.

LLA: The Language Laboratory Association of Japan, also known as LET, which now embraces a wider range of language learning technologies:. http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/lla

ATELL: The Australian Association for Technology Enhanced Language Learning consortium: http://www.arts.uq.edu.au/ATELL. ATELL used to publish On-CALL, which has now merged with CALL-EJ (Japan).
Suppliers of CALL materials

There are two general suppliers of CALL software in the UK:

Camsoft: http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/

Wida Software: http://www.wida.co.uk/

There is a comprehensive database that list the range of software titles, producers and suppliers:

BECTA Educational Software Database: http://besd.becta.org.uk/

In addition to the journals published by professional associations for CALL, the following are also available:
Bibliography

Bickerton, D. (1999). Authoring and the Academic Linguist: the Challenge of MMCALL. In K. Cameron (ed.) CALL: Media, Design and Applications, 59-79. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.

Bickerton, D., Stenton, T. & Temmermann, M. (2001). Criteria for the Evaluation of Authoring Tools in Language Education. In A. Chambers & G. Davies (eds), ICT and Language Learning: a European Perspective, 53-66. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.

Davies, G.D. (1991). Expodisc - an Interactive Videodisc Package for Learners of Spanish. In H. Savolainen & J. Telenius (eds), EUROCALL 91: Proceedings, 133-39. Helsinki: Helsinki School of Economics. Available at: http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/expodisc.htm

Felix, U. (2001). Beyond Babel: Language Learning Online. Melbourne: Language Australia. Reviewed at http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/FelixReview.htm

Fuerstenberg, G. (1993). A la rencontre de Philippe: Videodisc, Software, Teacher's Manual and Student Activities Workbook. Yale University Press. See also http://web.mit.edu/fll/www/projects/Philippe.html

Higgins, J. & Johns, T. (1984). Computers in Language Learning. London: Collins.

Johns, T. & King, P. (eds) (1991). Classroom Concordancing. Special Issue of ELR Journal 4, University of Birmingham: Centre for English Language Studies.

Last, R.W. (1989). Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Language Learning. Chichester: Ellis Horwood.

Levy, M. (1997). CALL: Context and Conceptualisation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Marty, F. (1981). Reflections on the Use of Computers in Second Language Acquisition. System 9/2:85-98.

Matthews, C. (1994). Intelligent Computer Assisted Language Learning as Cognitive Science: The choice of Syntactic Frameworks for Language Tutoring. Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education 5, 4:533-56.

Schneider, E.W. & Bennion, J.L. (1984). Veni, Vidi, Vici, via Videodisc: A Simulator for Instructional Courseware. In D.H Wyatt (ed.) Computer Assisted Language Instruction 41-6. Oxford: Pergamon.

Tribble, C. & Jones, G. (1990). Concordances in the Classroom. Harlow: Longman.

COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING: ITS STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

Learning is a social activity. It requires many activities and it involves not only students and a teacher but also students and other students or even the students and educational media. Language learning can be done without being accompanied by a real teacher. A computer can act as if it is a teacher. Many teachers conduct teaching learning process through a computer as a medium. Computer can be a good medium to help the students learn English in an easier and interesting way. Through a computer, students can learn more than the language itself, they will be given a chance to know more about the language; here, I try to discuss the use of computer in teaching English. Of course, there are some advantages and disadvantages of utilizing computer in language learning process.

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) relates to the use of computers for language teaching and learning. CALL offers many advantages for both teachers and students in learning language. First, computers can provide instructions, feed-back, and testing in grammar, vocabulary, writing, pronunciation, and other dimensions of language and culture learning. In this case, the teacher will only be a facilitator. He or she has been much helped by a computer. The teacher can easily control the activities of learning being done by his students. The programs that are installed and connected to the server will be easily controlled by a teacher. Not only that, a computer can also provide reading access to written audio and visual materials relate to the language and culture being studied by students. CALL also offers freedom for users to choose any topics of information available within the package (Hartoyo, 2006:27). A study conducted by Amstrong (2003) shows that learning achievement can be increased up to 50 percent when a teaching learning process utilizes CALL. Second, because of CALL’s flexibility of time, it can allow the students to determine what particular topics and how long they want to learn. Hence, students who miss the class because of some reasons, for instance illness, still have an opportunity to learn the particular topic taught in the classroom because the programs are available in the CALL program (Hartoyo, 2006:30). It can stimulate an individual interactive learning program, so both ‘fast and slow’ learners can take the benefit from it. The third, CALL can give a new role to teaching materials. Out of the content of CALL, teaching materials are really passive. Although the students said or did could influence in any deep sense the linear progression of the contents in CALL, materials adapt themselves to the requirements of the individual students; that is they become interactive (Peter, 1993:5).

Despite the fact that there are some advantages of utilizing computers in language learning, there are also a bit of disadvantages of CALL. The CALL program is considered to be much less handy. It is much different from traditional books that are small enough to be carried around and studied wherever and whenever students wish, on a train, on a bus, at home, in the middle of the night, or in a dentist’s waiting room (Anzel et al, 1992). Furthermore, at current time most of students do not possess their own computer at home; therefore, they just used computers available in their schools in which the opening hours are very restricted. Working long hours with computers also can make students’ eyes strain and tiring. It may, sometimes, account for the eye irritation and pain. CALL sometimes decreases the interaction among students or what we call the social aspect of schooling. It can not promote physical activities. Besides that, CALL is costly enough for the programmers or teachers. A lot of funds have to be provided to buy some equipments, design programs, and for its maintenance. The school with limited budget will find some obstacles in funding the CALL program. To create a program of CALL must have at least forty computers for one class capacity. Of course, lots of money needed for building computer laboratory. A lot of money is also needed to train teachers, especially English teachers, since there are only a few of English teachers who can operate computers as well as its new software.

In conclusion, the use of computers in language learning has so many advantages that we as English teachers must utilize it in a real teaching learning process to maximize students’ language potentiality. Talking about its weaknesses, we, as teachers, must inform to stake holders about the urgency of utilizing CALL in teaching learning process since most of the weaknesses come from the financial point. A school can train some English teachers to be able to operate computer as long as there is enough budget to do the program.

A typology of CALL programs and applications

Computer as tutor
Grammar

CALL Programs designed for teaching grammar include drill and practice on a single topic (Irregular Verbs, Definite and Indefinite Articles), drills on a variety of topics (Advanced Grammar Series, English Grammar Computerized I and II), games (Code Breaker, Jr. High Grade Builder), and programs for test preparation (50 TOEFL SWE Grammar Tests) Grammar units are also included in a number of comprehensive multimedia packages (Dynamic English, Learn to Speak English Series).

Listening

This category includes programs which are specifically designed to promote second-language listening (Listen!), multi-skill drill and practice programs (TOEFL Mastery), multimedia programs for second language learners (Accelerated English, Rosetta Stone), and multimedia programs for children or the general public (Aesop's Fables, The Animals).

Pronunciation

Pronunciation programs (Sounds American, Conversations) generally allow students to record and playback their own voice and compare it to a model. Several comprehensive multimedia programs (Firsthand Access, The Lost Secret) include similar features.

Reading

This category includes reading programs designed for ESL learners (Reading Adventure 1 - ESL) and tutorials designed for children or the general public (MacReader, Reading Critically, Steps to Comprehension). and games (HangWord). Also included are more general educational programs which can assist reading (Navajo Vacation, The Night Before Christmas) and text reconstruction programs (see below).

Text reconstruction

Text reconstruction programs allow students to manipulate letters, words, sentences, or paragraphs in order to put texts together. They are usually inexpensive and can be used to support reading, writing, or discussion activities. Popular examples include Eclipse, Gapmaster, Super Cloze, Text Tanglers, and Double Up. [ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Section 8, Module 1.4, headed Text manipulation.]

Vocabulary

This category includes drill and practice programs (Synonyms), multimedia tutorials (English Vocabulary), and games (Hangman, Scrabble). Also useful are several reference and searching tools (such as concordancers) which will be described in the Computer as Tool section below.

Writing

Most software for supporting writing falls under the Computer as Tool category (see below). Exceptions include tutorials such as Sentence Combining, SentenceMaker, and Typing Tutor.

Comprehensive

A number of comprehensive multimedia programs are designed to teach ESL students a variety of skills. They range in price but many are quite expensive. Among the better known are Dynamic English, Ellis Mastery, English Discoveries, Rosetta Stone.

Computer as stimulus

The computer as stimulus category includes software which is used not so much as a tutorial in itself but to generate analysis, critical thinking, discussion, and writing. Of course a number of the above-mentioned programs (e.g. The Animals, Navajo Vacation, Night Before Christmas) can be used as a stimulus. Especially effective for a stimulus are programs which include simulations. Examples of this latter group include London Adventure, Oregon Trail, Sim City, Sleuth, Crimelab, Amazon Trail, Cross Country Canada/USA, and Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?

Computer as Tool
Word processing

The most common use of computer as tool, and probably the most common use overall of the computer for language learning, is word processing. High quality programs like Microsoft Word can be useful for certain academic or business settings (Healey & Johnson 1995a). Programs such as ClarisWorks and Microsoft Works are cheaper and simpler to learn and still have useful features. SimpleText and TeachText are simpler yet and may be sufficient for many learners.

Grammar checkers

Grammar checkers (e.g. Grammatik) are designed for native speakers and they typically point to problems believed typical of native speaker writing (e.g. too much use of passives). They are usually very confusing to language learners and are not recommended for an ESL/EFL context. [ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Section 6.1, Module 1.3, headed Spellcheckers, grammar checkers and style checkers.]

Concordancers

Concordancing software searches through huge files of texts (called corpora, which is the plural of corpus) in order to find all the uses of a particular word (or collocation). While very confusing for beginners, concordancers can be a wonderful tool for advanced students of language, linguistics, or literature.

The best concordancer for language students and teachers is Oxford's MicroConcord. The program includes as an optional extra several large (total 1,000,000 words) taken from British newspapers. Or this program, and other concordancers as well, can be used with any other text files available in electronic form.

[ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Module 2.4, Using concordance programs in the Modern Foreign Languages classroom.]

Collaborative writing

A number of tools exist to help students work on their writing collaboratively on computers linked in a local area network. The most popular among language teachers is Daedalus Integrated Writing Environment, which includes modules for real-time discussion, word processing, electronic mail, and brainstorming, as well as citation software and a dictionary. Other programs with some similar features are Aspects and MacCollaborator.

Reference

There are numerous CD versions of encyclopedias and dictionaries. Two which have highly recommended (Healey & Johnson 1995a) for language learners are the encyclopedia ENCARTA and the Longman Dictionary of American English.

Internet

The three most popular uses of the Internet for language teaching are electronic mail (email), the World Wide Web, and MOOs. Numerous programs exist for using electronic mail. The Eudora program has several nice features, including "point-and-click" word processing capacity, easy attachment of formatted files, and ability to include foreign characters and alphabets. The free version (Eudora Light) is suitable for most purposes; there is also a more powerful commercial version (Eudora Pro).

Eudora requires a direct connection to the Internet. Additional programs which run through the unix system and do not require a direct Internet connection are Pine and Elm.

To access the World Wide Web, one needs a special program called a browser. By far the most popular browser among educators is Netscape, which until now has been free to teachers and students. [ICT4LT Editor's Note: Internet Explorer is now the most widely used browser.]

MOOs ("Multiple-user-domains Object Oriented") allow for real time communication, simulation, and role playing among participants throughout the world, and a special MOO has been set up for ESL teachers and students (schmOOze University homepage 1995). The use of MOOs is greatly facilitated if one uses a special client software program such as TinyFugue (for Unix), MUDDweller (for Mac), or MUDwin (for Windows). [ICT4LT Editor's Note: See Section 14.2, Module 1.5 for further information on MOOs and their latest manifestation, MUVEs.]

Authoring

Authoring allows teachers to tailor software programs either by inserting new texts or by modifying the activities. Authoring runs on a spectrum from set programs which allow slight modification (e.g. inclusion of new texts) to complex authoring systems.

Many of the programs listed earlier (e.g. MacReader, Eclipse, Gapmaster, Super Cloze, Text Tanglers, and Double Up) allow teachers to insert their own texts and thus make the programs more relevant to their own lessons (and greatly extend their shelf life too). By allowing the students themselves to develop and insert the texts, the programs can be made even more communicative and interactive.

On the other end of the spectrum, authoring systems allow teachers to design their own multimedia courseware. These can take a lot of time and effort to master, and are most often used by true enthusiasts. Some are specifically designed for language teachers (CALIS, DASHER), others for educators (Digital Chiseler) and others for the general public (Hypercard, Hyperstudio, Supercard, ToolBook, Macromind Director).

Computer Assisted Language Learning

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is a form of computer-based learning which carries two important features: bidirectional learning and individualized learning. It is not a method. CALL materials are tools for learning. The focus of CALL is learning, and not teaching. CALL materials are used in teaching to facilitate the language learning process. It is a student-centered accelerated learning material, which promotes self-paced accelerated learning.Definition

CALL originates from CAI (Computer-Accelerated Instruction), a term that was first viewed as an aid for teachers. The philosophy of CALL puts a strong emphasis on student-centered lessons that allow the learners to learn on their own using structured and/or unstructured interactive lessons. These lessons carry 2 important features: bidirectional (interactive) learning and individualized learning. CALL is not a method. It is a tool that helps teachers to facilitate language learning process. CALL can be used to reinforce what has been learned in the classrooms. It can also be used as remedial to help learners with limited language proficiency.

The design of CALL lessons generally takes into consideration principles of language pedagogy, which may be derived from learning theories (behaviorist, cognitive, and constructivist) and second language learning such as Krashen's Monitor Theory.

Others may call CALL an approach to teaching and learning foreign languages whereby the computer and computer-based resources such as the Internet are used to present, reinforce and assess material to be learned. CALL can be made independent of the Internet. It can stand alone for example in a CDROM format. Depending on its design and objectives, it may include a substantial interactive element especially when CALL is integrated in web-based format. It may include the search for and the investigation of applications in language teaching and learning. [1] Except for self-study software, CALL is meant to supplement face-to-face language instruction, not replace it.[2]


Computers have been used for language teaching ever since the 1960s. This 40-year period can be divided into three main stages: behaviorist CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative CALL. Each stage corresponds to a certain level of technology and certain pedagogical theories. The reasons for using Computer-assisted Language Learning include: (a) experiential learning, (b) motivation, (c) enhance student achievement, (d) authentic materials for study, (e) greater interaction, (f) individualization, (g) independence from a single source of information, and (h) global understanding. The barriers inhibiting the practice of Computer-assisted Language Learning can be classified in the following common categories: (a) financial barriers, (b) availability of computer hardware and software, (c) technical and theoretical knowledge, and (d) acceptance of the technology.

Introduction
History

CALL’s origins and development trace back to the 1960’s (Delcloque 2000). Since the early days CALL has developed into a symbiotic relationship between the development of technology and pedagogy.

Warschauer divided the development of CALL into three phases: Behavioristic CALL, Communicative CALL and Integrative CALL (Multimedia and the Internet)[1]. Bax (2003) perceived the three phases as Restricted, Open and Integrated - and there have been several other attempts to categorize the history of CALL: see the ICT4LT website (Section 3 of Module 1.4)].

Because repeated exposure to material was considered to be beneficial or even essential, computers were considered ideal for this aspect of learning as the machines did not get bored or impatient with learners and the computer could present material to the student as his/her own pace and even adapt the drills to the level of the student. Hence, CALL programs of this era presented a stimulus to which the learner provided a response. At first, both could be done only through text. The computer would analyze errors and give feedback. More sophisticated programs would react to students’ mistakes by branching to help screens and remedial activities. While such programs and their underlying pedagogy still exist today, to a large part behavioristic approaches to language learning have been rejected and the increasing sophistication of computer technology has lead CALL to other possibilities.

Communicative CALL is based on the communicative approach that became prominent in the late 1970’s and 1980’s. In the communicative approach, the focus is on using the language rather than analysis of the language, teaching grammar implicitly. It also allowed for originality and flexibility in student output of language. It also correlates with the arrival of the PC, making computing much widely available resulting in a boom in the development of software for language learning. The first CALL software in this phase still provided skill practice but not in a drill format, for example, paced reading, text reconstruction and language games but computer remained the tutor. In this phase, however, computers provided context for students to use the language, such as asking for directions to a place. It also allowed for programs not designed for language learning, such as Sim City, Sleuth and Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? to be used for language learning. However, criticisms of this approach include using the computer in an ad hoc and disconnected manner for more marginal rather than the central aims of language teaching. It usually taught skills such as reading and listening in a compartmentalized way, even if not in a drill fashion.

Integrative/explorative CALL, starting from the 1990’s, tries to address these criticisms by integrating the teaching of language skills into tasks or projects to provide direction and coherence. It also coincides with the development of multimedia technology (providing text, graphics, sound and animation) as well as computer-mediated communication. CALL in this period saw a definitive shift of use of computer for drill and tutorial purposes (computer as a finite authoritative base for a specific task) to a medium for extending education beyond the classroom and reorganizing instruction. Multimedia CALL started with interactive laser videodiscs such as “Montevidisco” (Schneider & Bennion 1984) and “A la rencontre de Philippe” (Fuerstenberg 1993), all of which were simulations of situations where the learner played a key role. These programs later were transferred to CD-ROMs, and new RPGs such as Who is Oscar Lake? made their appearance in a range of different languages.

In multimedia programs, listening is combined with seeing, just like in the real world. Students also control the pace and the path of the interaction. Interaction is in the foreground but many CALL programs also provide links to explanations simultaneously. An example of this is Dustin’s simulation of a foreign student’s arrival in the USA. Programs like this led also to what is called explorative CALL.

More recent research in CALL has favored a learner-centered explorative approach, where students are encouraged to try different possible solutions to a problem, for example the use of concordance programs. This approach is also described as data-driven learning (DDL), a term coined by Tim Johns. See Module 2.4 at the ICT4LT site, Using concordance programs in the Modern Foreign Languages classroom.
[edit] CALL and computational linguistics

CALL and computational linguistics are separate but somewhat interdependent fields of study. The basic goal of computational linguistics is to “teach” computers to generate and comprehend grammatically-acceptable sentences… for purposes of translation and direct communication with computers where the computer understands and generates natural language. Computational linguistics takes the principles of

A very simple example of computers understanding natural language in relation to second language learning is vocabulary drill exercises. The computer prompts the learner with a word on either the L1 or target language and the student responds with the corresponding word.

On a superficial level, the core issue for humans and computers using language is the same; finding the best match between a given speech sound and its corresponding word string, then generating the correct and appropriate response. However, humans and machines process speech in fundamentally different ways. Humans use complex cognitive processes, taking into account variables such as social situations and rules while speech for a computer is simply a series of digital values to generate and parse language.journal=Language Learning and Technology |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=45–60 |id= |url= |accessdate= 2007-12-02 }} For this reason, those involved in CALL from a computational linguistics perspective tend to be more optimistic about a computer’s ability to do error analysis and other pedagogical tasks than those who come into CALL via language teaching. [2]

The term Human Language Technologies is often used to describe some aspects of computational linguistics, having replaced the former term Language Engineering. There has been an upsurge of work in this area in recent years, especially with regard to machine translation and speech synthesis and speech analysis. The professional associations EUROCALL (Europe) and CALICO (USA) have special interest groups (SIGs), respectively devoted to Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Intelligent CALL (ICALL). See Module 3.5 at the ICT4LT website for further information.
Theoretical basis for CALL instruction design

Computers have become so widespread in schools and homes and their uses have expanded so dramatically that the majority of language teachers now think about the implications. Technology can bring about changes in the teaching methodologies of foreign language beyond simply automating fill-in-the-gap exercises. [3] The use of the computer in and of itself does not constitute a teaching method, but rather the computer forces pedagogy to develop in new ways that exploit the computer's benefits and that work around its limitations. [1] To exploit the computers’ potential, we need language teaching specialists who can promote a complementary relationship between computer technology and appropriate pedagogic programs. [3]

A number of pedagogical approaches have developed in the computer age, including the communicative and integrative/experimentative approaches outlined above in the History of CALL. Others include constructivism, whole language theory and sociocultural theory although they are not exclusively theories of language learning. With constructivism, students are active participants in a task in which they “construct” new knowledge based on experience in order to incorporate new ideas into their already-established schema of knowledge. Whole language theory postulates that language learning (either native or second language) moves from the whole to the part; rather than building sub-skills like grammar to lead toward higher abilities like reading comprehension, whole language insists the opposite is the way we really learn to use language. Students learn grammar and other sub-skills by making intelligent guesses bases on the input they have experienced. It also promotes that the four skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking) are interrelated. [4] Sociocultural theory states that learning is a process of becoming part of a desired community and learning that communities rules of behavior. [5]

What most of these approaches have in common is taking the central focus away from the teacher as a conveyor of knowledge to giving students learning experiences that are as realistic as possible, and where they play a central role. Also, these approaches tend to emphasize fluency over accuracy to allow students to take risks in using more student-centered activities, and to cooperate, rather than compete. [3] The computer provides opportunity for students to be less dependent on a teacher and have more freedom to experiment on their own with natural language in natural or semi-natural settings.
Role changes for teachers and students
Teachers

Although the integration of CALL into a foreign language program can lead to great anxiety among language teachers, [6] researchers consistently claim that CALL changes, sometimes radically, the role of the teacher but does not eliminate the need for a teacher altogether. Instead of handing down knowledge to students and being the center of students’ attention, teachers become guides as they construct the activities students are to do and help them as students complete the assigned tasks. In other words, instead of being directly involved in students’ construction of the language, the teacher interacts with students primarily to facilitate difficulties in using the target language (grammar, vocabulary, etc.) that arise when interacting with the computer and/or other people. [4] [3]

Elimination of a strong teacher presence has been shown to lead to larger quantity and better quality of communication such as more fluidity, more use of complex sentences and more sharing of students’ personal selves. [4] However, teacher presence is still very important to students when doing CALL activities. Teachers should be familiar enough with the resources to be used to anticipate technical problems and limitations. [3] Students need the reassuring and motivating presence of a teacher in CALL environments. Not only are they needed during the initial learning curve, they are needed to conduct review sessions to reinforce what was learned. Encouraging students to participate and offering praise are deemed important by students. Most students report preferring to do work in a lab with a teacher’s or tutor’s presence rather than completely on their own. [4]
Students

Students, too, need to adjust their expectations, of their participation in the class in order to use CALL effectively. Rather than passively absorbing information, learners must negotiate meaning and assimilate new information through interaction and collaboration with someone other than the teacher, be that person a classmate or someone outside of the classroom entirely. Learners must also learn to interpret new information and experiences on their own terms. However, because the use of technology redistributes teachers’ and classmates’ attentions, less-able students can become more active participants in the class because class interaction is not limited to that directed by the teacher. [4] Moreover more shy students can feel free in their own students'-centered environment. This will raise their self-esteem and their knowledge will be improving. If students are performing collaborative project they will do their best to perform it within set time limits.
Use of CALL for the four skills

A number of studies have been done concerning how the use of CALL affects the development of language learners’ four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). Most report significant gains in reading and listening and most CALL programs are geared toward these receptive skills because of the current state of computer technology. However, most reading and listening software is based on drills. [3] Gains in writing skills have not been as impressive as computers cannot assess this well. [4]

However, using current CALL technology, even with its current limitations, for the development of speaking abilities has gained much attention. There has been some success in using CALL, in particular computer-mediated communication, to help speaking skills closely linked to “communicative competence” (ability to engage in meaningful conversation in the target language) and provide controlled interactive speaking practice outside the classroom. [7] Using chat has been shown to help students routinize certain often-used expressions to promote the development of automatic structure that help develop speaking skills. This is true even if the chat is purely textual. The use of videoconferencing give not only immediacy when communicating with a real person but also visual cues, such as facial expressions, making such communication more authentic. [4]

However, when it comes to using the computer not as a medium of communication (with other people) but as something to interact with verbally in a direct manner, the current computer technology’s limitations are at their clearest. Right now, there are two fairly successful applications of automatic speech recognition (ASR) (or speech processing technology) where the computer “understands” the spoken words of the learner. The first is pronunciation training. Learners read sentences on the screen and the computer gives feedback as to the accuracy of the utterance, usually in the form of visual sound waves. [7] The second is software where the learner speaks commands for the computer to do. However, speakers in these programs are limited to predetermined texts so that the computer will “understand” them. [3]
Multimedia language centers

During the 1960s, language laboratories with cassette players and headphones were introduced into educational institutions. The use of this kind of center grew rapidly in the late 1960s and 1970s, but then went rapidly out of fashion."[8] Later, “digital language labs” were introduced, still following the traditional language format, such as teacher monitoring. What made them new was that they incorporated new technologies such as video. The term multimedia was originally used to describe sets of learning materials which included a book, audiocassettes and/or videocassettes. However, with the advent of computer-based materials, such packages tend to be called multiple media or mixed media - although there is not absolute consensus on this point. Nowadays multimedia refers to computer-based materials that can perform more varied tasks then the purely-audio mixed-media. Not only can such play pre-recorded audio and video material, it can create new audio and video recordings. It also has the capability of integrating the four basic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, as well as giving immediate, if limited, feedback to the student. However, like its predecessors, multimedia centers run the risk of being underutilized due to poor management. [9]

While multimedia computer-based materials can be used directly in the classroom, because of costs, such resources are usually found in a multimedia language center, fulfilling the role of the previous cassette-based and digital language laboratories. However, managing such a center requires knowledge of a wide range of equipment and the increasing expectations of such equipment from administrators, language teachers and students. Administrators often have the mistaken belief that buying hardware by itself will meet the needs of the center (often devoting 90% of a center’s budget to such and ignoring software and training needs) and will cut down on the number of teaching staff needed. [10]

While multimedia offers many opportunities for language learning with the availability of text, images, sound and video as well as interactive activities, the problem is that these opportunities have not been taken advantage of well. Most multimedia computer programs tend to be strong on presentation but weak as far as pedagogy and even interaction. One of the main promises of CALL is the ability to individualize learning, but like with past language laboratories, use of the facilities in many cases have devolved into rows of students all doing the same drills. The only advantage to the multimedia in these cases has been better sound and color images. Most modern language learning theories stress the importance of teacher guidance rather than control, giving students control over what they do, how fast they do it and even the ability to find and correct their own mistakes.[10]

Managing a multimedia language center properly requires not only knowledge of foreign languages and language teaching methodology, it also requires a certain amount of technical know-how and budget management ability as well as the ability to combine all these into creative ways of taking advantage of what the technology can offer. Often a center manager needs assistants for technical problems, for managing resources and even the tutoring of students. Multimedia centers lend themselves to self-study, and potentially self-directed learning, but such is often misunderstood. The simple existence of computers in a laboratory does not automatically lead to students learning independently. Significant investment of time is essential for materials development and creating an atmosphere conducive to such.

Self access language learning centers or independent learning centres have emerged partially independently, and partially in response to these issues. In self-access learning, the focus is on developing learner autonomy through varying degrees of self-directed learning, as opposed to (or as a complement to) classroom learning. In most centres, learners access materials and manage their learning independently, but have access to staff for help. Many self-access centres are heavy users of technology and an increasing number of them are now offering online self-access learning opportunities. Some centres have developed novel ways of supporting language learning outside the context of the language classroom (also called 'language support') by developing software to monitor students' self-directed learning and by offering online support from teachers (cf. [11])

Center managers and support staff need to have new roles defined for them to support students’ efforts at self-directed learning. In fact, a new job description has emerged recently, that of a “language advisor”[12].
Advantages of CALL
Motivation

Generally speaking, the use of technology inside or outside the classroom tends to make the class more interesting. However, certain design issues affect just how interesting the particular tool creates motivation. [4] One way a program or activity can promote motivation in students is by personalizing information, for example by integrating the student’s name or familiar contexts as part of the program or task. Others include having animate objects on the screen, providing practice activities that incorporate challenges and curiosity and providing a context (real-world or fantasy) that is not directly language-oriented.

For example, a study comparing students who used “CornerStone” (a language arts development program) showed a significant increase in learning (compared to students not using the program) between two classes of English-immersion middle-school students in language arts. This is because CornerStone incorporate personalized information and challenging and imaginative exercises in a fantasy context. [13] Also, using a variety of multimedia components in one program or course has been shown to increase student interest and motivation. [4]

One quantifiable benefit to increased motivation is that students tend to spend more time on tasks when on the computer. More time is frequently cited as a factor in achievement. [4]
Adapting learning to the student

Computers can give a new role to teaching materials. Without computers, students cannot really influence the linear progression of the class content but computers can adapt to the student. [3] Adapting to the student usually means that the student controls the pace of the learning but also means that students can make choices in what and how to learn, skipping unnecessary items or doing remedial work on difficult concepts. Such control makes students feel more competent in their learning. [13] Students tend to prefer exercises where they have control over content, such as branching stories, adventures, puzzles or logic problems. With these, the computer has the role of providing attractive context for the use of language rather than directly providing the language the student needs. [3]
Authenticity

“Authenticity” in language learning means the opportunity to interact in one or more of the four skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) by using or producing texts meant for an audience in the target language, not the classroom. With real communication acts, rather than teacher-contrived ones, students feel empowered and less afraid to contact others. Students believe they learn faster and better with computer-mediated communication. [3] Also, students learn more about culture in such an environment. [4] In networked computer environments, students have a conscious feeling of being members of a real community. In situations where all are learners of a foreign language, there is also a feeling of equality. In these situations students feel less stressed and more confident in a language learning situation, in part because surface errors do not matter so much. This works best with synchronous CMC (e.g. chats) as there is immediate feedback but email exchanges have been shown to provide most of the same benefits in motivation and student affect. [3]
[edit] Critical thinking skills

Use of computer technology in classrooms is generally reported to improve self-concept and mastery of basic skills, more student-centered learning and engagement in the learning process, more active processing resulting in higher-order thinking skills and better recall, gain confidence in directing their own learning. This is true for both language and non-language classrooms. [4]
Problems and criticisms of CALL instruction

The impact of CALL in foreign language education has been modest. [7] Several reasons can be attributed to this.
The first is the limitations of the technology, both in its ability and availability. First of all, there is the problem with cost[1] and the simple availability of technological resources such as the Internet (either non-existent as can be the case in many developing countries or lack of bandwidth, as can be the case just about anywhere). [3] However, the limitations that current computer technology has can be problematic as well. While computer technology has improved greatly in the last three decades, demands placed on CALL have grown even more so. One major goal is to have computers with which students can have true, human-like interaction, esp. for speaking practice; however, the technology is far from that point. Not to mention that if the computer cannot evaluate a learner’s speech exactly, it is almost no use at all. [7][1]
However, most of the problems that appear in the literature on CALL have more to do with teacher expectations and apprehensions about what computers can do for the language learner and teacher. Teachers and administrators tend to either think computers are worthless or even harmful, or can do far more than they are really capable of. [6]
Reluctance on part of teachers can come from lack of understanding and even fear of technology. Often CALL is not implemented unless it is required even if training is offered to teachers. [6] One reason for this is that from the 1960’s to the 1980’s, computer technology was limited mostly for the sciences, creating a real and psychological distance for language teaching. [14] Language teachers can be more comfortable with textbooks because it is what they are used do, and there is the idea that the use of computers threatens traditional literacy skills since such are heavily tied to books. [14] [15] These stem in part because there is a significant generation gap between teachers (many of whom did not grow up with computers) and students (who did grow up with them).
Also, teachers may resist because CALL activities can be more difficult to evaluate than more traditional exercises. For example, most Mexican teachers feel strongly that a completed fill-in textbook “proves” learning. [15] While students may be motivated by exercises like branching stories, adventures, puzzles or logic, these activities provide little in the way of systematic evaluation of progress. [3]
Even teachers who may otherwise see benefits to CALL may be put off by the time and effort needed to implement it well. However “seductive” the power of computing systems may be[3], like with the introduction of the audio language lab in the 1960’s, those who simply expect results by purchasing expensive equipment are likely to be disappointed. [1] To begin with, there are the simple matters of sorting through the numerous resources that exist and getting students ready to use computer resources. With Internet sites alone, it can be very difficult to know where to begin, and if students are unfamiliar with the resource to be used, the teacher must take time to teach it. [3] Also, there is a lack of unified theoretical framework for designing and evaluating CALL systems as well as absence of conclusive empirical evidence for the pedagogical benefits of computers in language. [7] Most teachers lack the time or training to create CALL-based assignments, leading to reliance on commercially-published sources, whether such are pedagogically sound or not. [1]
However, the most crucial factor that can lead to the failure of CALL, or the use of any technology in language education is not the failure of the technology, but rather the failure to invest adequately in teacher training and the lack of imagination to take advantage of the technology's flexibility. Graham Davies states that too often, technology is seen as a panacea, especially by administrators, and the human component necessary to make it beneficial is ignored. Under these circumstances, he argues, "it is probably better to dispense with technology altogether".[8]

Rody Klein, Clint Rogers and Zhang Yong (2006), studying the adoption of Learning Technologies in Chinese schools and colleges, have also pointed out that the spread of video games on electronic devices, including computers, dictionaries and mobile phones, is feared in most Chinese institutions. And yet every classroom is very well equipped with a desk imbedded computer, Internet connexion, microphone, video projector and remote controlled screen to be used by the teacher for multimedia presentations. Very often the 'leaders' prefer to ban completely Learning Technologies for students at the dismay of many foreign ESL teachers. Books and exercise books still prevail. In order to enhance CALL for teaching ESL and other languages in developing countries, it would be also crucial to teach students how to learn by themselves and develop the capacity to practice self evaluation and enhance intrinsic motivation. Tests and quizzes should be designed accordingly to encourage and enhance students autonomous practice. Teachers using CALL should be computer literate and trained continuously. Ideally each Foreign Language Department using CALL should hire an experienced Computer Scientist who could assist teachers. That expert should demonstrate dual expertise both in Education and Learning Technologies.
References

1. ^ a b c d e f "Computer Assisted Language Learning: an Introduction". Warschauer Mark. http://www.ict4lt.org/en/warschauer.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-11.
2. ^ "CALL (computer assisted language learning) Guide to Good Practice 3". Davies Graham. http://www.yarasystem.ir/index.html?www.llas.ac.uk&resources&goodpracticeaspx&resourceid=61. Retrieved 2007-12-01.
3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "Computer-assisted language learning: Increase of freedom of submission to machines?" (Domingo Noemi). http://www.terra.es/personal/nostat. Retrieved 2007-12-10.
4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l {{cit
e journal |last=Stepp-Greany |first=Jonita |year=2002 |month=January |title=Students perceptions on language learning in a technological environment: Implications for the new millennium |journal= Language Learning and Technology |volume= |issue= |pages= |id= |url= |accessdate= 2007-12-15 }}
5. ^ Mitchell, R; F. Myles (1998). Second Language Learning Theories. London: Arnold.
6. ^ a b c Thelmadatter, Leigh (July/Sept 2007). "The Computers Are Coming … Are Here!". TESOL Greece Newsletter 95.
7. ^ a b c d e Ehsani, Farzad; Eva Knodt (July 1998). "Speech technology in computer-aided language learning: Strengths and limitations of a new CALL paradigm". Language Learning and Technology 2 (1): 45–60.
8. ^ a b "ICT4LT Module 1.1". http://www.ict4lt.org/en/index.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
9. ^ "Introduction to multimedia CALL". http://www.ict4lt.org/en/index.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
10. ^ a b "Managing a multimedia language centre". http://www.ict4lt.org/en/index.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
11. ^ Reinders, Hayo (July 2007). "Big brother is helping you. Supporting self-access language learning with a student monitoring system". System 35 (1): 93–111. http://www.innovationinteaching.org.
12. ^ [1]
13. ^ a b Traynor, Patrick (July 2003). "Effects of computer-assisted instruction on different learners". Journal of Instructional Psychology.
14. ^ a b Ravichandran, T (2000). Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in the perspective of the interactive approach: Advantages and apprehensions.
15. ^ a b Bollin, G.G. (Mar/Apr 2003). "The Realities of Middle School for Mexican Children". The Clearing House 76 (4): 198.